Anne of Brittany Heiress and Twice Queen of France

Known for: the richest woman in Europe in her time; Queen of France twice, married to two kings in succession.Occupation: sovereign Duchess of BurgundyDates: January 22, 1477 - January 9, 1514Also known as: Anne de Bretagne, Anna Vreizh Background Mother: Margaret of Foix, daughter of Queen Eleanor of Navarre and Gaston IV, Count of FoixFather: Francis II, Duke of Brittany, who fought with King Louis and Charles VIII of France to keep Brittany independent, and who protected Henry Tudor who had fled England and would later become King Henry VII of England.Member of the house of Dreux-Montfort, tracing descent back to Hugh Capet, the French king.Sibling: A younger sister, Isabelle, died in 1490 Anne of Brittany Biography As heiress to the rich duchy of Brittany, Anne was sought as a marriage prize by many of the royal families of Europe. In 1483, Annes father arranged for her to marry the Prince of Wales, Edward, son of Edward IV of England. That same year, Edward IV died and Edward V was briefly king until his uncle, Richard III, took the throne and the young prince and his brother disappeared and are presumed to have been killed. Another possible husband was Louis of Orleans, but he was already married and would have to get an annulment in order to marry Anne. In 1486, Annes mother died. Her father, with no male heirs, arranged that Anne would inherit his titles and lands. In 1488, Annes father was forced to sign a treaty with France stating that neither Anne nor her sister Isabelle could marry without the permission of the king of France. Within the month, Annes father died in an accident, and Anne, barely older than ten years old, was left his heiress. Marriage Options Alain dAlbret, called Alain the Great (1440 to 1552), tried to arrange a marriage with Anne, hoping the alliance with Brittany would add to his power against Frances royal authority. Anne rejected his proposal. In 1490, Anne agreed to marry the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian, who had been an ally of her father in his attempts to keep Brittany independent of French control. The contract specified that she would keep her sovereign title as Duchess of Brittany during her marriage. Maximilian had been married to Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, before she died in 1482, leaving a son, Philip, his heir, and a daughter Margaret betrothed to Charles, son of Louis XI of France. Anne was married by proxy to Maximilian in 1490. No second ceremony, in person, was ever held. Charles, Louiss son, became king of France as Charles VIII. His sister Anne had served as his regent before he was of age. When he achieved his majority and ruled without the regency, he sent troops to Brittany to prevent Maximilian from completing his marriage to Anne of Brittany. Maximilian was already fighting in Spain and Central Europe, and France was able to quickly subdue Brittany. Queen of France Charles arranged that Anne would marry him, and she agreed, hoping that their arrangement would allow Brittany significant independence. They married on December 6, 1491, and Anne was crowned Queen of France on February 8, 1492. In becoming Queen, she had to give up her title as Duchess of Brittany. After that marriage, Charles had Annes marriage to Maximilian annulled. The marriage contract between Anne and Charles specified that whoever outlived the other would inherit Brittany. It also specified that if Charles and Anne had no male heirs, and Charles died first, that Anne would marry Charles successor. Their son, Charles, was born in October of 1492; he died in 1495 of the measles. Another son died soon after birth and there were two other pregnancies ending in stillbirths. In April of 1498, Charles died. By the terms of their marriage contract, she was required to marry Louis XII, Charles successor -- the same man who, as Louis of Orleans, had been considered as a husband for Anne earlier, but was rejected because he was already married. Anne agreed to fulfill the terms of the marriage contract and marry Louis, provided that he get an annulment from the Pope within a year. Claiming that he could not consummate his marriage with his wife, Jeanne of France, a daughter of Louis IX, even though he had been known to boast of their sexual life, Louis obtained the annulment from Pope Alexander VI, whose son, Caesar Borgia, was given French titles in exchange for the consent. While the annulment was in process, Anne returned to Brittany, where she ruled again as Duchess. When the annulment was granted, Anne returned to France to marry Louis on January 8, 1499. She wore a white dress to the wedding, the beginning of the Western custom of brides wearing white for their weddings. She was able to negotiate a wedding contract that permitted her to continue to rule in Brittany, rather than giving up the title for the title of Queen of France. Children Anne gave birth nine months after the wedding. The child, a daughter, was named Claude, who became Annes heir to the title of Duchess of Brittany. As a daughter, Claude could not inherit the crown of France because France followed Salic Law, but Brittany did not. A year after Claudes birth, Anne gave birth to a second daughter, Renà ©e, on October 25, 1510. Anne arranged that year for her daughter, Claude, to marry Charles of Luxembourg, but Louis overruled her. Louis wanted to marry Claude to her cousin, Francis, Duke of Angoulà ªme; Francis was heir to the crown of France after Louis death if Louis had no sons. Anne continued to oppose this marriage, disliking the mother of Francis, Louise of Savoy, and seeing that if her daughter were married to the King of France, Brittany would likely lose its autonomy. Anne was a patron of the arts. The Unicorn Tapestries at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York) may have been created with her patronage. She also commissioned a funeral monument at Nantes in Brittany for her father. Anne died of kidney stones on January 9, 1514, only 36 years old. While her burial was at the cathedral of Saint-Denis, where French royalty was laid to rest, her heart, as specified in her will, was put in a gold box and sent to Nantes in Brittany. During the French Revolution, this reliquary was to be melted down along with many other relics but was saved and protected, and eventually returned to Nantes. Annes Daughters Immediately after Annes death, Louis carried through the marriage of Claude to Francis, who would succeed him. Louis remarried, taking as his wife the sister of Henry VIII, Mary Tudor. Louis died the next year without gaining the hoped-for male heir, and Francis, Claudes husband, became King of France, and made his heir the Duke of Brittany as well as King of France, ending Annes hoped-for autonomy for Brittany. Claudes ladies-in-waiting included Mary Boleyn, who was a mistress of Claudes husband Francis, and Anne Boleyn, later to marry Henry VIII of England. Another of her ladies-in-waiting was Diane de Poitiers, the long-time mistress of Henry II, one of the seven children of Francis and Claude. Claude died at age 24 in 1524. Renà ©e of France, the younger daughter of Anne and Louis, married Ercole II dEste, Duke of Ferrara, son of Lucrezia Borgia and her third husband, Alfonso dEste, brother of Isabella dEste. Ercole II was thus a grandson of Pope Alexander VI, the same Pope who granted the annulment of her fathers first marriage, permitting his marriage to Anne. Renà ©e became associated with the Protestant Reformation and Calvin and was subjected to a heresy trial. She returned to live in France after her husband died in 1559.

The Scarlet Letter vs. the Crucible Essay - 703 Words

6 December 2010 The edgy tale of The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is comparable in many ways to Arthur Miller’s haunting play The Crucible. Both are set in Puritan New England in the 17th century and revolve around the harsh law enforcement of the time. However, The Scarlet Letter tells the story of a woman as she deals with her heavy Puritan punishment, whereas The Crucible follows hysteria as it spreads throughout an entire town. Hester Prynne, the main character of The Scarlet Letter, was found guilty for adultery and sentenced to wear a red letter A on her chest to inform people of her sin. Similarly, The Crucible’s main character John Proctor admits to having committed lechery and is sent to jail for this and for being a†¦show more content†¦In an open courtroom John doesn’t only admit to his sin, but expresses his regret for it; yet Hester refuses to speak any details about her sin and shows no emotion towards it whatsoever. This lack of e motion shown by Hester is completely reversed when analyzing the antagonists involved in these works. The main similarity between the two villains is that they both have great emotions towards the main characters. â€Å"[Abigail] thinks to dance with [John] on [his] wife’s grave!† and wishes to once again win his love (Miller 106) The main emotion held by Abigail Williams is therefore lust. In contrast, Roger Chillingworth wishes for Hester to suffer for her sin. â€Å"Even if I imagine a scheme of vengeance, what could I do better for my object that to let thee live, – than to give thee medicines against all harm and peril of life, – so that this burning shame may still blaze upon thy bosom?† (Hawthorne 62) Another large difference between Abby and Roger is how they react with the other characters in their separate tales. Abby’s popularity is crucial in The Crucible. If she were not to have had the support of the other young girls of the to wn and the trust of Danforth and Hale, then Miss Williams never would have been able to accomplish as much as she did. On the polar opposite end, Chillingworth’s reclusiveness is a defining factor within The Scarlet Letter. His image as â€Å"The Leech† helps to demonstrateShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter And The Crucible821 Words   |  4 Pagesis one that that is both emitted in the Scarlet Letter and The Crucible. Both literary works share similar ideas, but also have quite a few differences. Nathaniel Hawthorne, the writer, utilizes symbolism for the scarlet letter, to be a symbol of Hester’s shame. The embroidered â€Å"A† on Hester’s bosom symbolizes the sin of adultery which she had committed. Not only was the sign of embarrasment used but also the scaffold had great importance in the Scarlet Letter. The scaffold was used as place of humiliationRead MoreThe Crucible : Nature Vs Nurture Debate2002 Words   |  9 Pagesrunning discussions in psychology is the nature vs nurture debate. That is, is human behavior influenced more by environmental factors in one’s life, such as parents, or by genetics and biological factors? In Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, Atticus Finch is described as an outstanding role model for his children, Jem and Scout, teaching them morals, discipline, and important lessons such as the acceptance of those who are different. In The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne describes Hester PrynneRead More William Faulkners Use of Shakespeare Essay5388 Words   |  22 Pagesperspective of the present. One of the best illustrations of this point is Arthur Miller’s great play, The Crucible, on the literal level a treatment of the mass hysteria evidenced in the Salem witchcraft trials of 1692 but through contextual parallels an expose of the McCarthyism that was rampant in America at the time Miller published the play, 1953. There can be no denying that The Crucible is an â₠¬Å"historical† play; but it would certainly be a mistake to view the play as merely or even primarily

Is Latin America a More Democratic Place Today Free Essays

Is Latin America a more democratic place today than it was in 1945? Given the word and time restrictions, an in depth analysis of each Latin American country’s democratic progression across the time period would simply not be feasible. Instead I will attempt to look at Latin America’s progression as a whole and will provide examples of specific countries situations where relevant, in particular Venezuela. Firstly it is important to distinguish between two ideas. We will write a custom essay sample on Is Latin America a More Democratic Place Today? or any similar topic only for you Order Now One is democracy. For democracy to work, there must be free and fair elections. There must be more than one political party. The people of the country should have a good education so that they can make informed choices. They should share a common culture. All must accept the idea that everyone has equal rights. Finally, there must be rule by law, not by power. In other words there must be a separation of power, which means that the judiciary has to be a completely different body from the governing power of the country. Many nations in Latin America have had dif? culty achieving democracy because all these factors are not present. The second idea is that of democratic culture. This involves the existence of constitutions, respect for rights, transparency when it comes to policies and governmental decisions and crucially, no corruption. Latin America, when viewed as a whole, is generally viewed as a more democratic place now than in 1945 but it would be wrong to assert that during the past 68 years Latin American countries have undergone a steady increase in democracy. Brazil is a prime example of a country that has gone through fluctuations in democracy throughout the period. Currently in Latin America, despite being in a state of relative poverty when compared to the rest of the world, the majority of countries have become, at least formally, electoral democracies. 13 countries are now classed as free, 8 as partially free, with only Cuba and Haiti being deemed as not. Venezuela, following the recent passing of Hugo Chavez, is at a crossroads on its journey to democracy. However many question how democratic a ruler Chavez actually was in his time as president. One of two very important relationships to analyse is that of democracy and the level of development in a country or in this case Latin America. This leads on to what is one of the most stable relationships in social sciences, the positive correlation between high levels of wealth and established democracy (Lipset 1959). To back this statistic up, a democratic regime has never fallen after a country has reached a certain level of income per capita, which is said to be $6055 (Przeworski 2000). In 1945 Latin America was still recovering from the economic shockwaves caused by the great depression of 1930. This global economic crisis meant that the rest of the world was not demanding any imports from Latin America. At the time these would have been mainly raw materials and this lack of export revenue for the South American countries had a detrimental effect on their situations in the majority of cases. During the decade or so after the great depression, around 1945, the effects will have trickled down and income per capita and GDP levels will have been significantly reduced. This will in turn have destabilised democracy attempts and can be viewed as a reason for why Latin America was less democratic then than it is now. Without the economic and financial means it is very difficult to achieve a fully functioning democracy. Of course it is worth pointing out that we are nearing the end of a fairly gruelling global economic downturn today but the consequences for Latin America are far less in this instance. The economic growth in Latin America has been very modest throughout the 68 years in question but more importantly it has been volatile. Periods of prosperity in several countries have been followed by long periods of stagnation and even negative growth. This volatility can be seen in Latin American countries progression since independence in terms of democracy as well. Take Brazil as an example. The country became independent in 1822 and was ruled by a monarchy. In 1930 this monarchy was overthrown and the country was under a dictatorship for a couple of decades. In 1956 an elected leader was installed only to be replaced by military rule 10 years later. Finally in the 1980’s, as a result of yet another economic decline, Brazil was yet again ruled by an elected president. The other significant relationship that needs to be looked at is that of democracy and corruption. Corruption is usually defined as a violation of the norms of public office for personal gain (Nye 1967). It has been suggested that corruption permeates everyday life in Latin America with only very high profile cases ever being unveiled in a court of law and even then this only happens in the more democratic countries (Blake and Morris 2009). Here are a few statistics to back this assertion up. In a 2004 survey 42 % of respondents ranked the probability of paying a bribe to the police as high, while 35% expressed the same ease of bribing a judge (Blake and Morris 2009). In a 2005 survey, 43% of respondents in Paraguay and 31% in Mexico admitted to having paid a bribe just within the past twelve months (Blake and Morris 2009). Democracy has a complex and multifaceted relationship to corruption (Doig and Theobald 2000). It provides alternative avenues to obtain and then use power and wealth. This leads to brand new opportunities for corruption. However despite the fact that democracy makes it easier for corruption to exist, when there is a democracy it becomes of even greater importance to supress corruption as it strikes at the very meaning of democracy itself. To sum this idea up, corruption undermines the essence of citizenship, distorting and crippling democracy (Blake and Morris 2009). It is clear from the statistics in the previous paragraph that corruption continues in today’s Latin America to have a tight grip over many if not all of its countries. Therefore it is very difficult to say that democracy has come on in leaps and bounds since 1945 when as crucial a factor as corruption is still such a plague to the region. Another factor when looking at democracy in the continent is the level of education. People must be aware of the fact that there is more than one option in a democracy. It is also crucial that the population of a country understands the concept of propaganda. A democracy can only work in a country with a certain level of education otherwise it can easily be classed as brainwashing, especially with the level of influence that the media can have over an ill-educated population. An example of what a lack of education can do in a democracy is that during the elections in which Chavez was voted in, he very nearly missed out on the appointment because his main rival was a former Miss Venezuela. The implication of this is that a worrying amount of the Venezuelan public didn’t vote for Chavez because there was a far better looking female alternative. Of course this could just be cynicism and she may well have had a very impressive manifesto and realistic yet progressive goals. During Chavez’ time in power though, he managed to substantially increase literacy along with reducing poverty by over half. Chavez had many positive effects on Venezuela, not least providing them with 14 years of stable rule. However his recent death has thrown the country off its feet and they are at risk of descending into political turmoil. Further examples of why Latin America was less democratic in 1945 include the fact that leading South American countries such as Columbia and Argentina had still not given women the right to vote. Universal suffrage is something that can be found in certain definitions of democracy for example Dahl’s and was definitely holding those countries back at that stage in their bid for democracy (Dahl 1971). To conclude, it is safe to say that Latin American countries are in a better overall place than in 1945 but that corruption in particular is holding them back. A country needs to be not only ready for democracy but also willing to accept it. It can definitely be argued that not all Latin American countries are ready for democracy but one final point may indicate that they are nearing acceptance of it. This is that something the Latin Americans care greatly about is their national identity, an idea that is very closely linked to democracy. Therefore with the rapid increase in globalisation endangering this coveted national identity, South American countries are rapidly warming to the idea of being democratic. Bibliography: Charles H. Blake Stephen D. Morris (1999), Corruption and Democracy in Latin America, published by the University of Pittsburgh Press. * R. A. Dahl (1971), Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition, published by Yale University Press. * Alan Doig and Robin Theobald (2000), Corruption and Democratization. * S. M. Lipset (1959), Some Social Requisites of Democracy, Economic Development and Political Illegitimacy. * A. Przewor ski (2000), Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-being in the World 1950-1990, Cambridge University Press. How to cite Is Latin America a More Democratic Place Today?, Essay examples